#baroque

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  • Prompt: The expression Art Nouveau goes back to the illustrated cultural magazine Jugend founded by Georg Hirth in Munich at the end of 1895 and is to be understood as a counter-movement by young artists and artisans to backward-looking historicism, but also to industrialization, which is understood to be soulless. The focus is on new materials, such as concrete or iron, and new construction methods. It is only used in German-speaking countries, the Netherlands, Hungary, the Nordic countries and Latvia. Art Nouveau was first mentioned in 1897 at the Saxon-Thuringian Industrial and Trade Exhibition in Leipzig in 1897.[2] For this purpose, Paul Möbius designed the extraordinary exhibition pavilion Nietzschmann-Wommer; the pavilion was described as deviating greatly from the traditional with daringly humorous and fantastic motifs that develop a certain verve. Initially, the expressions Art Nouveau and Secession style in the relevant magazines (Dekorative Kunst, authors: Hermann Muthesius, Julius Meier-Graefe) were a critical label for the fashionable popularization of the new forms by industry, which, with its "cheap" mass-produced arts and crafts, sold individual works by Artists like H
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  • Prompt: Jugendstil or Art Nouveau, mostly in connection with Italy also Stile liberty, is an art historical epoch at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. Currents that can be assigned to Art Nouveau are the reform style (after the reform movement), the Secession style (after the Vienna Secession), Modernisme in Catalonia, in Switzerland Style Sapin and in the USA Tiffany Style. In addition to the expression Art nouveau, which is dominant in French, English and Italian, Modern Style is also used in English and Stile Floreale in Italian. In terms of time, Art Nouveau belongs to the fin de siècle.
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  • Prompt: In 1928 Behrens won an international competition for the construction of the New Synagogue, in Zilina, Slovakia, which was restored in 2012–17 as a cultural centre.[5] The same year he designed a renovation of the Feller-Stern department store in central Zagreb, Croatia, transforming it from Art Nouveau to a complex almost De Stijl Modernist composition. His 1931 hillside villa for the Clara Gans, daughter of Frankfurt industrialist Adolf Gans, was a similarly complex interplay of rectangular volumes, clad in stone, a fine example of New Objectivity.
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  • Prompt: The most prominent graphic artist was Otto Eckmann, who produced numerous illustrations for the movement's journal Jugend, in a sinuous, floral style that was similar to the French style. He also created a type style based upon Japanese calligraphy. Joseph Sattler was another graphic artist who contributed to the style through another artistic journal called Pan. Sattler designed a type face often used in Jugendstil. Another important German graphic artist was Josef Rudolf Witzel (1867–1925), who produced many early covers for Jugend, with curving, floral forms which helped shape the style. The magazine Simplicissimus, published in Munich, was also noted for its Jugendstil graphics, as well as for the modern writers it presented, including Thomas Mann and Rainer Maria Rilke. Important illustrators for the magazine included Thomas Theodor Heine.
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  • Prompt: In 1905, with the patronage of the Grand Duke of Weimar, he created the Grand Ducal School of Arts and Crafts in Weimar. He created a showcase of applied arts for the Dresden Exposition of Applied Arts in 1906, decorated with paintings by Ludwig von Hofmann, intended as the main room of a new museum of decoration in Weimar. He transposed the characteristics of his silverware, dishes, and furniture into the architecture. Van de Velde left off the curling vegetal lines of Art Nouveau decoration and replaced them with much simpler, more stylized curves which were part of the structure of his buildings and decorative works. In 1907, van de Velde became director of the a new school of decorative arts in Weimar. His remake of Art Nouveau into a more functional and simplified style very different appeared in his door handles, his chairs, and the facades of his buildings. The ornament merged into the structure. The importance of Weimar as a cultural was broken in 1906, when its main patron, Count Harry Kessler, commissioned Rodin to make a nude statue for the Archduke. The Archduke was scandalized, and Kessler was forced to resign. The Weimar school of design lost its importance until
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  • Prompt: The city of Weimar was another important center of the Jugendstil, thanks largely to the Belgian architect and designer Henry van de Velde. Van de Velde had played an important role in the early Belgian Art Nouveau, building his own house and decorating it in Art Nouveau style, with the strong influence of the British Arts and Crafts Movement. He was a known in Germany for his work in Belgium and Paris, and began a new career in Dresden in 1897, with a display at the Dresden Exposition of decorative arts. His work became known in Germany through decorative arts journals, and he received several commissions for interiors in Berlin, for a villa in Chemnitz, the Folkwang Museum in Hagen, and the Nietzsche House in Weimar for Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, the sister of philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche. He settled in Weimar in 1899 and produced a wide variety of decorative works, including silverware and ceramics, all in strikingly original forms. His silverware was particularly unusual: each piece had its own form, with sleek curving lines, but together they formed a harmonious ensemble. In 1902, he decorated the apartment of Count Harry Kessler, a prominent patron of the Impressionist
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  • Prompt: The Darmstadt Artists' Colony is a remarkable collection of Jugendstil buildings created beginning in 1899 by Ernest Ludwig, Grand Duke of Hesse, a grandson of Queen Victoria, to promote both commerce and the arts. He brought together a group of designers to create his new community, including Peter Behrens, Hans Christiansen, and Joseph Maria Olbrich. The Colony architecture represented a complete break with the earlier floral style, and was much bolder in its design. Behrens and several of the other architects built their own houses there, and designed every detail, from the doorknobs to the dishes.
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  • Prompt: Çifte Minareli Medrese is an architectural monument of the late Seljuk period in Erzurum City, Erzurum Province, Turkey. Built as a theological school a few years before 1265, it takes its name, Twin Minaret Madrasa, from the two fluted minarets that crown the monumental façade. The Çifte Minareli Medrese is thought to be the model for the Gök Medrese in Sivas. According to the inscription on the portal, it was built in 1271 by Khudavand Khatun, the daughter of Seljuq Sultan Kayqubad I. The madrasa probably had an impact on the Buruciye Madrasa too. The east entrance of the madrasa and the enormous stone facade of ornamental brick and tile masonry with two minarets are remarkable works of art. On each side of the entrance there is a panel. The right side is decorated with a double-headed eagle. The motif on the left side does not seem to be completed.
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  • Prompt: A typical türbe is located in the grounds of a mosque or complex, often endowed by the deceased. However, some are more closely integrated into surrounding buildings. Many are relatively small buildings, often domed and hexagonal or octagonal in shape, containing a single chamber. More minor türbes are usually kept closed although the interior can be sometimes be glimpsed through metal grilles over the windows or door. The exterior is typically masonry, perhaps with tiled decoration over the doorway, but the interior often contains large areas of painted tilework, which may be of the highest quality. Inside, the body or bodies repose in plain sarcophagi, perhaps with a simple inscription, which are, or were originally, covered by rich cloth drapes. Usually these sarcophagi are symbolic, and the actual body lies below the floor. At the head of the tomb a wooden pole was sometimes surmounted by a white cloth Ottoman turban (for men) or by a turban carved in stone.
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  • Prompt: The influences of peasant houses were manifested through ornaments and elements used under various interpretations, but which retain their origin. Among the elements are the loggia, the trilobed arch, wooden pillars, a treatment of the cornice as an ordinary eaves of a peasant house, the inclusion of the roof in the image of the facade as an element of ornament, carved wooden awnings, and tiled roofs. Commonly used ornaments are knots and ropes (aka interlace), peacocks drinking symmetrically from a cup, and complex vegetable spirals (aka rinceaux). Some of the ornaments of some Neo-Romanian buildings from the Belle Époque are made of polychrome glazed ceramic, as is the case of the Școala Centrală National College in Bucharest.[9] Considering the fact that most Romanians were and are Orthodox, the architects sometimes added Byzantine-inspired elements (like the two peacocks drinking from a cup) or with Christian significance. A characteristic of the style is the use of elements grouped in threes (for example a row of three windows), which refers to a Christian concept, representing the Holy Trinity (Father, Son and Holy Spirit).
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  • Prompt: Romanian Revival architecture is a revival of the Brâncovenesc [brɨŋkovenesk], a style in medieval Romanian art and architecture, more specifically in Wallachia during the reign of Constantin Brâncoveanu (1688–1714). This is because it was seen as the style specific to Romania, which is true. Brâncovenesc buildings are characterised by the use of porticos (mainly the entrances of churches), trilobate or kokoshnik arches, columns (usually Corinthian), sometimes with twisted flutings, and metallic or ceramic tile roof. The main ornaments used for decoration are the interlace and the complex vegetal spiral (aka rinceau). Some of the features of Brâncovenesc architecture derive from Byzantine and Ottoman architecture, and a some can also be found in medieval Russian architecture. Brâncovenesc churches usually have façades decorated with reliefs, most churches being white, while some have elaborate paintings on the façades (like the Stavropoleos Monastery from Bucharest). The walls of their interiors are filled with Byzantine style frescos. Above their main door there is a pisanie, which is an inscribed stone plaque.
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  • Prompt: Romanian Revival architecture is an architectural style that has appeared in late 19th century in Romanian Art Nouveau, initially being the result of the attempts of finding a specific Romanian architectural style. The attempts are mainly due to the architects Ion Mincu (1852–1912), and Ion N. Socolescu (1856–1924). The peak of the style was the interwar period. The style was a national reaction after the domination of French-inspired Classicist Eclecticism. Apart from foreign influences, the contribution of Romanian architects, who reinvented the tradition, creating, at the same time, an original style, is manifesting more and more strongly. Ion Mincu and his successors, Grigore Cerchez [ro], Cristofi Cerchez, Petre Antonescu, or Nicolae Ghica-Budești declared themselves for a modern architecture, with Romanian specific, based on theses such as those formulated by Alexandru Odobescu around 1870.
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  • Prompt: The settlement of the Middle Neolithic (5000–4000 BCE), housed 500–1000 people in more substantial and presumably more family-private homes. Construction was the same, except the windows and doors were timbered, a fixed, raised hearth occupied the center of the main room, and pilasters and other raised features (cabinets, beds) occupied the perimeter. Under the palace was the Great House, a 100 m2 (1,100 sq ft) area stone house divided into five rooms with meter-thick walls suggesting a second story was present. The presence of the house, which is unlikely to have been a private residence like the others, suggests a communal or public use; i.e., it may have been the predecessor of a palace. In the Late or Final Neolithic (two different but overlapping classification systems, around 4000–3000 BCE), the population increased dramatically.
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  • Prompt: Arthur Evans, who unearthed the palace of Knossos in modern times, estimated that c. 8000 BCE a Neolithic people arrived at the hill, probably from overseas by boat, and placed the first of a succession of wattle and daub villages (modern radiocarbon dates have raised the estimate to c. 7000–6500 BCE). Large numbers of clay and stone incised spools and whorls attest to local cloth-making. There are fine ground axe and mace heads of colored stone: greenstone, serpentine, diorite and jadeite, as well as obsidian knives and arrowheads along with the cores from which they were flaked. Most significant among the other small items were a large number of animal and human figurines, including nude sitting or standing females. Evans attributed them to the worship of the Neolithic mother goddess and figurines in general to religion.
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  • Prompt: The typical nuraghe is situated in areas where previous prehistoric Sardinian cultures had been distributed, that is not far from alluvial plains (though few nuraghes appear in plains currently as they were destroyed by human activities such as agriculture, dams, road building etc.) and has the outer shape of a truncated conical tower, thus resembling a medieval tower, with a tholos-like vault inside. The structure's walls consist of three components: an outer layer (tilted inwards and made of many layers of stones whose size diminishes with increasing height: mostly, lower layers consist of rubble masonry, while upper layers tend to be of ashlar masonry); an inner layer, made of smaller stones (to form a corbelled dome of the bullet-shaped tholos type, and where ashlar masonry is used more frequently); and an intermediate layer of very small pieces and dirt, which makes the whole construction very sturdy: it stands only by virtue of the weight of its stones, which may each amount to several tons. Some nuraghes are about 20 meters in height, the tallest one known, Nuraghe Arrubiu, reached a height of 25–30 meters.
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  • Prompt: Navigation had an important role: historian Pierluigi Montalbano mentions the finding of nuragic anchors along the coast, some weighing 100 kg (220 lb).[79] This has suggested that the Nuragic people used efficient ships, which could perhaps reach lengths up to 15 meters (49 ft). These allowed them to travel the whole Mediterranean, establishing commercial links with the Mycenaean civilization (attested by the common tholos tomb shape, and the adoration of bulls), Spain, Italy, Cyprus, Lebanon. Items such as Cyprus-type copper ingots have been found in Sardinia, while bronze and early Iron Age Nuragic ceramics have been found in the Aegean region, Cyprus,[82] in Spain (Huelva, Tarragona, Málaga, Teruel and Cádiz)[83] up to the Gibraltar strait, and in Etruscan centers of the Italian peninsula such as Vetulonia, Vulci and Populonia (known in the 9th to 6th centuries from Nuragic statues found in their tombs).
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  • Prompt: In the ceramics, the skill and taste of the Sardinian artisans are manifested mainly in decorating the surfaces of vessels, certainly used for ritual purposes in the course of complex ceremonies, perhaps in some cases even to be crushed at the end of the rite, as the jugs found in the bottom of the sacred wells. Ceramics also display geometric patterns on lamps, pear-shaped vessels (exclusive of Sardinia) and the askos. Imported (e.g. Mycenaeans) and local forms were found in several sites all over the island. Also found in the Italian peninsula, Sicily, in Spain and in Crete everything points to Sardinia being very well integrated in the ancient trade of the Mediterranean Sea.
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  • Prompt: The Giants of Mont'e Prama are a group of 32 (or 40) statues with a height of up to 2.5 m (8.2 ft), found in 1974 near Cabras, in the province of Oristano. They depict warriors, archers, wrestlers, models of nuraghe and boxers with shield and armed glove. Depending on the different hypotheses, the dating of the Kolossoi – the name that archaeologist Giovanni Lilliu gave to the statues[72]: 84–86  – varies between the 11th and the 8th century BC.[73] If this is further confirmed by archaeologists, like the C-14 analysis already did, they would be the most ancient anthropomorphic sculptures of the Mediterranean area, after the Egyptian statues, preceding the kouroi of ancient Greece. They feature disc-shaped eyes and eastern-like garments. The statues probably depicted mythological heroes, guarding a sepulchre; according to another theory, they could be a sort of Pantheon of the typical Nuragic divinities. Their finding proved that the Nuragic civilization had maintained its peculiarities, and introduced new ones across the centuries, well into the Phoenician colonization of part of Sardinia.
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  • Prompt: The holy wells were structures dedicated to the cult of waters. Though initially assigned to the 8th–6th centurie BC, due to their advanced building techniques, they most likely date to the earlier Bronze Age, when Sardinia had strong relationships with the Mycenaean kingdoms of Greece and Crete, around the 14–13th century BC. The architecture of the Nuragic holy wells follows the same pattern as that of the nuraghe, the main part consisting of a circular room with a tholos vault with a hole at the summit. A monumental staircase connected the entrance to this subterranean (hypogeum) room, whose main role is to collect the water of the sacred spring. The exterior walls feature stone benches where offerings and religious objects were placed by the faithful. Some sites also had sacrificial altars. Some scholars think that these could be dedicated to Sardus, one of the main Nuragic divinities.
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  • Prompt: The representations of animals, such as the bull, belong most likely to pre-Nuragic civilizations, however they kept their importance among the Nuraghe people, and were frequently depicted on ships, bronze vases, used in religious rites. Small bronze sculptures depicting half-man, half-bull figures have been found, as well as characters with four arms and eyes and two-headed deer: they probably had a mythological and religious significance. Another holy animal which was frequently depicted is the dove. Also having a religious role were perhaps the small chiseled discs, with geometrical patterns, known as pintadera, although their function has not been identified yet.
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